求问3个问题，是关于组织行为学的，谁学过或者正在学，能帮忙回答下，有偿，

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如题，21号早上2点截至，犹豫我们老师根本没给过例题，我才从别人那弄到例题，不过已经太晚了，我正在准备case study 顾及不了，求解答，求帮忙，要是那个好心人能打出来，我愿意有偿。这个题就是例题，我不知道会不会考，但是万无一失吧，我现在也没办法了，我知道我平时不努力，这一些都是我自己的责任，不过请大家多包容和理解，轻拍，谢谢

Discuss the differences between content theories and process theories of motivation. Select ONE theory and discuss why you think it

可怜的孩子，我都要睡了，帮你找了找，估计就最后一个问题有个比较接近的资料可以分享给你，你凑合看看吧。
group thinking
Negative
1.        It can increase the errors occur- The people prevail upon one another to think the same way, and as a result of all thinking the same way arrive at the same errors.
2.        Less creative solution: because no one is going to say any different in the meeting, therefore, to result less creative solution.
3.        Inefficient decision making: The wealth of options born of a diversity of thought is absent. Fewer options would lead to bad decision.
4.        Less productive: Groupthink is normally less productive than teams who capitalize on difference in perspective.
5.        Pressure from team members: Members apply direct pressure on those who present doubt or question about any of the group’s shared views.
6.        Keeping silence: Members who have doubts or questions are more likely to avoid deviating from the “group idea” by keep silent. Sometimes even minimising to themselves the important of their doubts.
7.        Conceal of unfavourable information: Members are more likely to conceal of unfavourable information
8.        Democracy VS Autocratic: Organisation style also could influence group thinking, members in an autocratic organisation are more tend to agree with each other or agree with leaders, which may total different as an organisation with democratic style.
9.        Culture: In a collectivism culture like China, people consider harmony relationship with others, doubt other people’s idea could consider as unrespected actions by others.
10.        Members would hesitate to propose difference ideals when all members have already made the decision ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Even if few of the members find out the decision may occur bad consequence.
Positive:
11.        Members may gain social acceptance. If members agree the majority, they may make friends more easily, because they seem they belong to the team.
12.        Simplifies complex decisions: Many complex decisions can be made by the group decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle.
13.        Greater acceptability of decisions: As everyone has made some contribution to the decision, people tend to be more accepting of the decision. Also those who may not have contributed still support it as “the group” has come to this decision.
14.        Shared responsibility: There are a number of people involved, so no one person has to shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision.
Recommendation
1)        Monitor group size: people grow more intimidated and hesitant as group size increase, and individual are likely to feel less personal responsibility when groups get larger than about ten.
2)        Managers should also encourage group leaders to play an impartial role: leaders should actively seek input from all members and avoid expressing their own opinions, especially in the early stages of deliberation.
3)        Use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group and intensifying identity protection.

这个另外一个版本，意思差不多。你综合一下，足够你回答最后一个问题了。
1. Strong sense of belonging. The more attractive a group, the much stronger sense of belonging the individual has. Then, people are likely to adopt group attitudes and behaviours because they think they are a part of the group.
2. Group pressure. Group norms can create much pressure on the individual, forcing them to accept the same reaction. Also, people are eager to become same with a group rather than different from a group.
3. Same background and training. Employees in an organization usually are similar in background and experienced the same professional training. Therefore, they are more likely to comply with the standardization of work process.
4. Control by organization power. Sometimes organization can use the power of conformity to force people to do something that are different from their ideas.  Also, organization can change their attitudes and behaviour.
5. No confidence to make decision. Most of the employees today are afraid of taking risk or lack confidence to make important decision. Therefore, when they are unsure about the answer, they will normally follow the majority’s view in order to avoid making mistakes or getting punishments when things go wrong.
6. Individual Personality. Personality plays a critical role in the conformity. Individual who are shy and timid would be expected to be more susceptible to group thinking.
7. Different Culture impact. Conformity to social norms is higher in collectivist culture than in individualistic cultures. For example, countries like USA has relatively lower conformity compare to countries like Japan.
8. Group Size the larger the group, the less likelihood there is for an individual to challenge the majority group decision.
9. Avoiding conflicts. To avoid conflicts with other members, team members would provide ‘expected comment’ but not ‘right answer’.
10. Personal Perception. People tend to conform to the important groups that they feel are significant to them
11.Dont want to be different. Individuals tend to adopt group attitudes and behaviour and avoid being visibly different.
Negative Impacts
1.        Decrease creativity. Because of the pressure of conformity, people don’t want to express their ideas. That, creativity will decrease gradually.
2.        No autonomy. The pressure of conformity would make people perform as a group and work under direction of group. That will damage personal ideas and autonomy.
3.        No willing to say NO. Everyone in the group agrees some decisions, even if you don’t agree, you can’t easily say no because of peer pressure.
4.          Lose diversity. Because of conformity, group is at a risk of losing organizational diversity, especially international companies which have cross-cultural issues.
5. Less competition. Conformity probably reduces organizational sustainable competition. Due to ignoring different opinions, long term conformity behaviour in an organization might be at the expense of sustainable development.
6. Conceal potential problem. Conformity perhaps covers up the potential problems. Because conformity makes organizational members to consider the similar idea and managers collect a great number of information from the people with the same ideas, so managers are difficult to find some potential problems.
7. More Stress. Insecure individuals are more likely to be prone to group thinking, because they are unable to handle stress effectively.

siasowen 发表于 2012-11-20 01:53
可怜的孩子，我都要睡了，帮你找了找，估计就最后一个问题有个比较接近的资料可以分享给你，你凑合看看吧。 ...

这么多明天我慢慢整理把，先谢谢了，好心人，好人有好报的，我在等等看看有没有人能回答吧

对recommendation部分的补充
How can an organisation minimise the risk of groupthink?
1.        Groupthink can be minimised by minimising antecedents to it, for example, by ensuring:
1.        Low levels of group cohesiveness;
2.        Organisational structure which fosters openness, leader impartiality, procedural norms and member diversity;
3.        Situational contexts like high group efficacy and low stress.
2.        Low levels of group cohesiveness can be encouraged by avoiding self-perpetuating mechanisms of the group, for example, avoiding automatic membership renewals, so there is rotation of new members into the group, old members out.
3.        Another step to reduce group cohesiveness is participation of specialist/expert outsiders or internal audit in group decision processes so as to disrupt informal members’ alliances or usual group reaction patterns.
4.        Group processes should support openness or whistleblowing by team members including, for example, a member acts as a devil’s advocate to expressly challenge majority suggestions and generate other perspectives. A devil advocate in groups of cultural homogeneity could be a bicultural individual of low bicultural identity integration (BII). Biculturals with low BII are more comfortable to dissent to norms of the prime culture of the group.
5.        Inclusion of a bi-sector or bi-discipline individual into a group or team with all other members in one of the sectors or disciplines of the bi-sector/bi-discipline individual may help to generate different options and better processing of information relating to those options. However, like other teams of diversity (different genders, inter-generational or multicultural members), multi-sector teams and multidiscipline teams require effective communication processes for optimal understanding of each other and to optimise divergent thinking for creative problem-solving of a diverse team.
6.        In temporary organisations, like a project team, impartial project managers should hold sufficient power or authority (in procedural norms) to balance freedom, efficiency and speed in decisions, as required by context, to circumvent poor decision-making from an isolated specialist team with high congruence of values.
7.        The size of a group should be ten or less members so members are more likely to retain personal responsibility for decisions, that is not abdicate responsibility, and so members take steps to ensure effective information processing for effective decision-making. Group norms are to ensure discussion is not dominated by one group member, for example, questions in focus groups be carefully compiled (mostly open-ended) and asked by an impartial facilitator to minimise individual domination and group conformity.
8.        Groups with a holistic mix of team participation, communication and thinking styles, as well as methods of communication with each other (such as visual, verbal and tactile), will increase group efficacy and in turn effective processing of information towards better quality decisions.
9.        Groupthink can also be minimised by the group taking steps to avoid group members supporting a perceived group preference or avoid concurrence seeking (concurrence seeking being the second causal link in the groupthink process).
10.        One such step is for impartial group leaders to seek all members’ input and refrain from giving their own opinions, during initial group discussions. Group members are encouraged to present options without specific recommendations and members discuss negative elements of options before canvassing positive elements.
11.        Additionally it can be minimised by taking steps to overcome influences to symptoms of groupthink (the third causal link in the groupthink process). Firstly, the group takes steps to ensure the group is real in its belief of the group’s abilities and group members understand the group’s views are only one viewpoint of many viewpoints. For example, audit of skills, strengths and weaknesses of group members, will disclose gaps in skills skills for effective information processing and decision-making. Diversity management aids accommodation of many viewpoints. Organisational processes which require risk management and contingency plans will focus group members on examination of risks and triggers to failure.
12.        Organisation introduces code of ethics, ethics officer and organisation-wide ethics training (and retraining) programmes. In other words, the organisation introduces procedural norms for organisational benefit (not personal gain) which are to be mentored/overseen by an organisational expert (group outsider). This action is especially important for maintenance of organisational ethics if group members would otherwise culturally diffuse responsibility for unethical decision-making.
13.        Secondly, the group takes steps to ensure the group remains open-minded so group members do not rationalise information that contradicts expectations or assumptions and do not stereotype the views of competitors and other outsiders as inferior. The leader assigns the role of critical evaluator to each member. There is constructive critical reflection of previous learnings and past situation or experiences to challenge prior/existing assumptions. The leader should ensure a sizeable block of time is set aside to survey warning signals from rivals; leader and group members construct alternative scenarios of rivals’ intentions.
14.        Thirdly, the group takes steps to deter pressure towards conformity of group decisions. Group procedural norms encourage structured decision making: to deter self-censorship, illusion of unanimity or harmony, direct pressure on dissenters to concede to solutions and self-appointed mindguards.
15.        Some tools for point 14 are:
1.        Group norms require the group chair to canvass each group member to voice opinion before any decision is put to a vote (or secret ballot), as used in Board meetings (or jury rooms)
2.        Group norms supports accountability of group members who are required to justify their suggestions
3.        Multiple groups study the same issue and/or bolster internal audit reviews of decision processes

书到用时方恨少，考试临头抱佛脚，好自为之啊～

siasowen 发表于 2012-11-20 02:01
对recommendation部分的补充
How can an organisation minimise the risk of groupthink?
1.        Groupthink ...

这么多啊，我要好好整理下了

siasowen 发表于 2012-11-20 02:01
对recommendation部分的补充
How can an organisation minimise the risk of groupthink?
1.        Groupthink ...

谢谢你了，不过我不能都答上吧，有点夸张了

unisa 的ob嘛？是的话motivation是选择题...

Yuki0711 发表于 2012-11-20 02:32
unisa 的ob嘛？是的话motivation是选择题...

flinders uni